Haber-Bosch Process Alternatives

Haber-Bosch Process Alternatives â€Å"Should resources be invested in searching for an alternative to the Haber-Bosch process†. Introduction: Ammonia’s ongoing consumption in the world is startling. The production of ammonia (NH3) was the turn of the 20th century, a startling breakthrough in organic chemistry for the world to stand in astonishment. Two scientist; Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, made this breakthrough through the chemical procedure called the: ‘Haber-Bosch Process,’ (N2+ 3 H2→ 2 NH3.) However they weren’t the first to try the synthesis of ammonia from its elements (www.nobelprize.org, 1920.) prior to the discovery of synthetic ammonia and long before the commercial application of it, early farmers knew that certain properties of carbon based by-products which led to: human waste being scattered in Chinese farmlands, grinding of skeletons in Europe and the exploitation of Peru’s readily-available guano, due to its natural nitrogenous compounds, and the discovery of Nitrogen Fixation Processes (www.firt.org, 2012.) The need for Ammonia was directly related to the worldâ₠¬â„¢s survival, the fixed nitrogen from the air is an incredible and needed ingredient for fertilizing. Many principles of chemical and high—pressure processes were discovered and expended for the optimisation of the known nitrogen fixation process. Industries in the 19th and 20th century saw the ongoing need for nitrogen and turned to their already in use factories for producing coal to use the by-product of coking, ammonia sulphate. This along with the previously mentioned methods was how ammonia was produced pre-Haber-Bosch Process. From these early discoveries evidence can be seen as to why the Haber Bosch process is the best way of producing ammonia for the growing world. Two more scientists by the name of Priestly and Cavendish used electrical sparks in the air to produce nitrates, done by dissolving the oxides of nitrogen to form alkalis. Nitrogen Fixation, fixating Nitration as calcium cynamide proved evasive for commercial use, but later proved useful for the produc tion of chemicals requiring the cynamide configuration. There were numerous other process ect. Thermal Processing, cyanide formation, aluminium nitride formation and the slow process of decomposing to ammonia were deemed to elusive for sustainability due to the scarce amount of chemical components for the organic production to be made, resulting in to high of cost. With Habers-Bosch large-scale catalytic synthesis of ammonia from elemental hydrogen and nitrogen gas which had reactants that were inexpensive (Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Iron as a catalyst.) Using high pressure (~5000c) alongside high pressure (~150-200 atm), the process involved forcing almost completely unreactive gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen to have the product of Ammonia. This high-energy process has undergone extensive modifications in the 21st century which goes on to prove that resources should not be devoted in the search for an alternative to the currently used Haber-Bosch process because the structure of the proc ess is the most balanced of the mentioned processes of making ammonia even in the 21st century with a need of 150 million metric tonnes of ammonia (Chemical and Engineering News, 1996); 80% of which is used in agriculture where 48% of the resulting produce is responsible for the world’s ongoing consumption, however there are a few methods that give an idea for very good alternatives that could replace Haber-Bosch, but would not be as efficient. Discussion on Methods: What has made the Haber Bosch process so great is its low cost and readily available materials as seen in this method, this however has been as previously mentioned modified many times since Haber’s work: Ammonia synthesis from nitrogen and hydrogen, a reversible reaction is as follows: (1) And the equilibrium constant is (2) (www.ias.ac.in, 2012) From our understanding of organic chemistry we can see that production of ammonia is a exothermic reaction with a exponential amount of heat released. As previously mentioned the reaction is reversible, the forward reaction being ammonia synthesis, and the reverse reaction being ammonia decomposition. The decrease of the volume derives from the decrease in the number of moles of gas from the equations, two and one. With the use of Le Chatelier’s Principle (See appendix one), from this it can be seen that by increasing the pressure in the reaction causes the equilibrium to shift to the right resulting in a higher yield of ammonia produce since there is a pressure drop accompanying the transformation; the decrease in the temperature then also causes the equilibrium position to move to the right again resulting in a higher yield of ammonia since the reaction is exothermic as previously mentioned. Figures 1A and B show the effect of temperature and pressure on the equilibrium mole fraction of ammonia. It can be seen that the ammonia mole fraction decreases as the temperature increased just as the pressure increases. Figure one. (A is the mole fraction of ammonia in the state of equilibrium at varying temperatures to result in a given value of pressure. B is difference pressures at fixed values of temperature in Kelvin, data supplied by www.ChemWiki.org Temperature (K) Pressure (Atm) The conclusion then that ammonia synthesis according to the first equation is an equilibrium reaction that is favoured by low temperature and high pressure which. The reaction does not proceed at ambient temperature because nitrogen requires a lot of activation energy for the dissociation to happen (www.Topsoe.com). In the gas phase of the reaction, the dissociation occurs only at around 3000 °C (ChemWiki.com). Looking at the hydrogen molecule in the reaction, which has a weaker molecular bond, only dissociates markedly happened at temperatures above ~1000 °C (ChemWiki.com, 2012). Which shows that the reaction cannot be performed at lower temperature because it needs high activation energy to happen, if there was an increase in the temperature with a enough level, the reverse reaction predominates (www. http://abacus.bates.edu/, 2010). This is where scientist decided to have the role of the iron catalyst come in. Figure two below shows the energy profiles for ammonia synthesis in the absence and presence of the catalyst. The hydrogen and nitrogen molecules lose their translational ability to be bound to the catalyst surface. This reduces the activation energy dramatically and makes the forward reaction go faster, which makes sense to us because catalyst can’t do nothing else but speed the reaction up. Other minor components of the catalyst includecalciumandaluminium oxides, which are there to support the absorbent iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area over time, andpotassium, which increases theelectrondensity of the catalyst and so improves its activity (ChemWiki.com, 2012). This means that scientist can rid the need for extremely high temperature conditions, a problem Haber encounted while trying to find commercial success. Something for us to know it the use of lower temperature reaction conditions means there is limited reverse reaction which is energy saving as well, this reinforces the idea of the Haber-Bosch Process being the bes t there is. For industrial use however, there is still a need for reasonably high temperatures (250–400 °C) to dissociate the N2 and H2. (Figure two, the effect of catalyst on the activation energy). Supplied by www.Chemguide.uk. Now that we know the advantages of the current Haber – Bosch Process, we can look into how carbon-free ammonia comes into the world. Licht wrote a paper on the two current chemical reactions that are now used most widely in ammonia synthesis: CH4+ 2H2O→4H2+ CO2 N2+ 3H2→2NH3 These won’t be explained because they already have previously. 3CH4+ 6H2O +4 N2→ 3CO2+8NH3 Licht wrote of a proposal for the use of ammonia as a fuel for automobiles. Although Licht did not specify the products of the ammonia oxidation, it looked into the possibility that this fuel cell might prove reversible in the case where a product was nitrogen gas, which looks into the fixation of Nitrogen, an electrochemical path to ammonia. However scientist need to overcome the extreme stability of the nitrogen-nitrogen bond in N2gas, nitrogen fixation always requires the need of gas with a metal (www.theenergycollective.com, 2012), which in biological systems the metal in question is molybdenum (as well as the used iron as the catalyst), making molybdenum, along with iodine, the only elements in the periodic table that are essential to this project.Haber he speculated that there was a better catalyst, uranium which we will look at later. A metal catalyst is required in the electrochemical process as stated, in this process the catalyst is iron, but in this case it is necessary that the iron, present as an oxide in the process, be in the form of nanoparticles suspended in molten alkali hydroxides, where future research can be done on the use of other molten oxides, notably, cesium hydroxide, which may prove superior however the variables in the process with respect to temperature, operating voltage, current and the physical nature electrodes will also need to be detailed in research before this can happen. (www.atomicinsight.com,2012). For this processto happen a eutectic melting mixture of KOH and NaOH, potassium and sodium hydroxides respectively; the authors explored also the use of other molten oxides, notably, cesium hydroxide, which may prove as a better source for the process. These hydroxides are only molten at higher temperatures, and steam and air or pure nitrogen gas are bubbled through the molten hydroxide s ( in the case of air, carbon dioxide, meaning that with the removal of this gas from the air would be a side benefit of the process, a benefit to the Haber-Bosch process.)The precise stoichiometry of the reaction varies with the conditions, but one form of reaction mentioned by the authors, this done through a controlled environment, is this: N2+ 10H2O → 2NH3+ 5O2+ 7H2 Both pure oxygen and hydrogen are important to the reaction, and goes to show that the reaction offers many potential synergies for the benefit of the scientist. The gases on the right side are not produced as an explosive mixture, because ammonia and hydrogen are formed on one side of the cell, at the cathode, whereas the oxygen is formed at the anode (www.atomicinsight.com).The mixture of cathodic gases, ammonia and hydrogen in the reaction, are easily separated by compression as Lecht found. The overall electrochemical efficiency is quite high compared to other attempts at the electrochemical reduction of nitrogen to ammonia gas, which is around 46%, an efficiency that may well be competitive with Haber-Bosch process ammonia synthesis, however this does not include the heat penalty associated with melting the alkali metal hydroxides and keeping them molten which is the reason nitrogen fixation was proved a commercial disaster when Haber was working, where 38% of the land would be needed and the cost being severely higher, Haber’s process uses only 14% of the land to produce ammonia. What else could aid in the Haber-Bosches super process? A better catalyst. Haber sought for a better catalyst in the 20th century with investigations into uranium. With an understanding of the activity of the key component of the Haber-Bosch process which is the catalyst, could help to better the industrial nitrogen fixation still further from what we previously discussed and remove the need for high temperatures and pressures. Ruthenium, osmium, uranium and cobalt-molybdenum can all catalyse the Haber-Bosch process (ChemWiki.com, 2012), but iron catalysts are cheap. It’s the most commonly used catalyst which was developed more than a century ago and is a potassium-doped iron catalyst. A soluble version of such a catalyst might be even more efficient because it could overcome the rate-limiting step of nitrogen dissociation from a solid catalyst surface, which was demonstrated before. Scientist have found that soluble iron catalysts have proven ineffective for the process in its need to be reducing the N-N triple bond as seen in figure three and also cannot produce large amounts of ammonia for commercial use. Germany has developed a molecular iron complex that can react with (Figure three, The N-N Triple bond, a problem that persist in the formation of an improved haber-bosch process). nitrogen gas in the presence of a potassium reducing agent to generate a complex containing two nitrides bound to the iron and potassium cations which contain a mixed iron (2+/3+) nitride.Germany suggests that the formation of this developed core structure has three iron atoms working together to break the dinitrogen triple bond through a six-electron reduction (NewScientist.com, 2014). The resulting nitride of the reaction then reacts with hydrogen gas to generate a high yield of the product ammonia. Unfortunately, this process leads to the use of the iron and so is not catalytic, a problem for the process as it reduces the yield on ammonia because with an absence of a catalyst the reaction is so slow that virtually no reaction happens in a reasonable time (ChemWiki.com, 2012). The catalyst ensures that the reaction is fast enough for a dynamic equilibrium to be set up within the very short time that the gases are actually in the reactor. Germany’s work on the core provides i mportant clues as to precisely how nitrogen cleavage and N-H bond formation occurs, which might allow them to build a complex that does work catalytically in solution, something that can be further investigated in the future. This is great because it means the Haber-Bosch Process can be simplified and eventually bring a greater yield of product, seeing the growth of ammonia grow in the world. Conclusion: Through economic situations, the Haber-Bosch Process is the most essential to the world, however it’s also the most relevant in terms of the future. Nitrogen Fixation as we looked at can potentially be a competitor to the Haber-Boch Process, due to it’s overall electrochemical efficiency which as stated is quite high in comparison to other attempts at the electrochemical reduction of nitrogen to ammonia gas, it is around 46%, an efficiency that may well be competitive with Haber-Bosch process ammonia synthesis. Unfortunately there is no process being studied in thermodynamics to reduce the heat loss from the process, ChemGuide.uk states that â€Å"A 46% increase is substantial for the future of Ammonia production, but heat loss is an issue for it that so far, can’t be reduced with what we know today†. The next thing we looked at was the catalyst in the current Haber-Bosch Process. Haber dwelled into Uranium but backed out of the idea because of the money, however with the advance we discussed in the study on catalytic effects it’s clear and hypothesises that there is a high possibility that in the future Ruthenium, osmium, uranium and cobalt-molybdenum can all be used in the synthesis of ammonia with a high yield in produce, which is being investigated currently. Advances in the Haber-Bosch Process are our best approach for the future, scientifically and economically, that is until thermodynamics are better understood. Appendix Summary of Le Chatelier’s Principle by www.ChemWiki.ucdavis.edu (1) If the concentration of a reactant is increased, the equilibrium position shifts to use up the added reactants by producing more products. (2) For gaseous reactions, gas pressure is related to the number of gas particles in the system; more gas particles means more gas pressure. Consider a reaction which is accompanied by decrease in number of moles, such as, ammonia synthesis (equation one). Increasing the pressure on this equilibrium system will result in the equilibrium position shifting to reduce the pressure, that is, to the side that has the least number of gas particles. (3) In an endothermic reaction, energy can be considered as a reactant of the reaction while in an exothermic reaction, energy can be considered as a product of the reaction. Consider an exothermic reaction which is accompanied by release of heat, such as ammonia synthesis (equation one). Reducing the temperature of this equilibrium system (which result in taking the heat away) will result in the equilibrium position shifting to increase the temperature (producing more heat), that is, to shift the equilibrium position to the right.

Is animal research in psychology ethical and necessary? Essay

Animals are living organisms that belong to the Animalia kingdom. These are classified as multicellular, meaning that their biological bodies is composed of many cells that interact to each other to perform biological processes. There are certain characteristics of animals that differ with other living organisms. Cell wall is not present in the cell of an animal unlike on plants. As mentioned earlier, animals are classified as eukaryotic which distinguish them from bacteria and protists. They digest their foods in a digestive system which separate from plants and algae. The body structures of animals of different species are almost the same. If not, they have many in common. The basic unit of life is cell. Cells work depending on their work. There are cells that manage the formation of blood while there are cells that control the formation and development of bones. Cells of the same structure and work will form larger organic system which is called the tissues (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1997). The work of tissue will depend on what kind of cell it was formed. After this stage, the lager stage which is composed of groups of tissues is called organs. Example of an organ is the eye. Eye is the sensory organ for sight. Animals use their eyes to see what is around them. The eye is composed of different cells and tissues. These cells and tissues interact together so that the animal can see the surrounding. And the last stage is called the system. System is composed on interrelated organs. Example of an animal biological system is the digestive system. It is composed of stomach, large and small intestines, esophagus and other organs. The digestive system works as the digester of the food that was eaten by an animal. The digestion process occurs at the digestion chamber which is the stomach. This stomach is composed of tissue muscles and muscle cells (Nielsen, 2001). Research Research is a human activity that is based from scientific method that seeks or wants to discover anything. In making a study or experiment, one must research existing knowledge or newly discovered facts that will aid in the conduct of the study or experiment. In doing a research study or experiment, the first thing to do is to determine the problem that wants to be solved. This is also known as the topic of the study. After this is the formation of the hypothesis. Hypothesis is an intelligent guess. You must test the hypothesis to determine the solution on the problem or the topic. The next thing to do is the gathering of the relevant data. These data will be used to support the discussion part of the research activity. Analysis of the gathered data will show how the data will affect the decision on the acceptance of the hypothesis. And the last part of a research method is the conclusion. In this part, the significance of the hypothesis is determined. This will show if the hypothesis will be accepted or rejected (Trochim, 2006). Psychology Psychology is the study of human behavior that uses interdisciplinary principles like science and mental processes. It is a branch of behavioral science. It deals on studying the behavior of human in social dynamics while incorporating physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology tries to explain the complex behavior of the human mind that controls all the action and behavior of a person. All the factors are considered in this area of knowledge like the physical, social, political, and spiritual aspects of human. (Miller, 1890) Ethics Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the study of human values and customs. In this area of knowledge, the difference between good and bad, right and wrong are being emphasized. Ethical issues are usually encountered on people with profession. Ethical standards are set from different profession. These ethical standards will guide people in conducting and performing their duty. The ethical standards are usually based on right, good and norms. There are different ethical standards for different fields or professions (Perle, 2004). Alarming issue-The conservatives In the advent of the 19th century, technology had been an efficient tool in making the lives of human simpler and easier. Also, there was an obvious trend in the development of technology. Products of the technology today are smaller, faster, lightweight and more efficient compared to other products that were invented before the advancement of technology. In the agriculture sector, genetically modified corns are now popular. The new invented corn has many advantages compared to the traditional corn that is use in many corn plantations. Genetically modified corn has high resistant to pest infestation. Also, higher production is acquired when genetically modified corn is used by a farmer because corn kernel produced by a single corn is higher than on a normal corn. Thus many framers now are using the hybrid corn to increase their profit. Another product of the advancement of technology is Dolly. Dolly is a sheep that was cloned. In the 1990s, cloning was one of the focuses of many scientists. They modify the genetic makeup of a living organism and then cloning the original organism to produce an identical one. And the first living thing to be cloned was a sheep. On the two examples above, many conservative sectors were alarmed on the capability of technology to modify living organism. They said that it is not ethical to produce other living things because only the Creator must do that. Another ethical issue tat concern living organism is the research on animals’ psychology. In this paper, deep analysis will be done to justify why there is a need for animals in research of psychology. Why animals? Today, animals are being examined and experimented to determine their behavior when an external force is applied to them. This kind of research is popular on the field of psychology and medicine. An example in the medicine field is the determination of the effects of a newly discovered medicine drug. Scientists observe the effect of the drug by applying it to an animal. Another animal research used in medicine or science is Dolly. Scientist tests whether they can clone an animal and also, further studied if Dolly is identical to the original sheep. In psychology, animals are being examined to determine their behavior when something in their environment changed. They examine the behavior of an animal to understand complex behavior of man. In this way, psychologist can gain basic knowledge on the learning processes and motivational systems, such as hunger, thirst, and reproduction. Animal research has provided critical information about the sensory processes of vision, taste, hearing, and pain perception. But for all the living organisms, why is animal used in research in psychology instead of plants or humans? This question will try to be answered as the discussion will flow. Until now, the debate between the animal conservatives and the psychologist is still on going. The former contradicts to the latter in a way that why are animals used in many research just to discover and understand the behavior of man and why not human be the focus on research? The main reason why animals are preferred to be examined than human is the ethical issues concerning on the rights of every all people living in this world that is- the right to chose what kind of life they want. But how about on the side of animals? Do they have no right to have normal life? This is the main argument of the psychologists and animal protectors. According to recent studies, animal research had brought many finding and basic knowledge about the behavior of man (â€Å"Why animal experimentation persists,† 2007). As mentioned earlier, animal research had brought and understand deep behavioral principles that links animals to man. It leads to the development of effective methods for promoting learning and self-reliance in a wide variety of populations. Animal research has contributed also to treatment of difficult clinical problems such as controlling self- injurious behavior in autistic children and adults and teaching children who have been tube-fed since birth to eat normally (Association, 2007b). Other significant contributions of animal research in psychology is the knowledge acquired o the effects of psychoactive drugs and environmental toxicants, and other chemicals that are utilized by man (Association, 2007a). This is why animals are use in many research psychologies instead of man because the experiment may change the behavior of a person and this will not permit by the human rights law. Also, if these psychoactive drugs and environmental toxicants are used on human, death may be a result of the experiment. When research on psychology is being discussed, animal as the material in the experiment is always the talk of the town. But there are also some areas where the use of man is more preferred than on animals in studying the human behavior. One example is the human behavior on love. Though animals also feels affection, human are more reliable when love or affection is the focus of the study. This is one of the examples were human research in psychology is more preferred than on the use of animals in the laboratory. Another main reason why there are such studies that needs to be done with the use of animals as their samples. One main reason is the duty to the field of science. Every experiment using a animal must have a relevant purpose or objective to justify the need for an animal to be part of the experiment. One kind of purpose is the increase in knowledge in a specific field. Many psychologists do research on behavioral science to gain more knowledge that will help them in understanding the complex structure of the human behavior. Though the main focus of many psychologists on their research is the human behavior, they used animals because animals and humans have high resemblance in their characteristics, this maybe physical, emotional and behavioral aspect. As mentioned by Darwin in his theory of Evolution, he emphasized that animals’ continuity in evolution is human. When animals are used in research in psychology, which will bring better understanding on the human behavior, the findings will be used to answer many behavioral problems. This is one of the reasons why there are such studies that are being done, to help in solving psychological problems of human. This is because there are people suffering from serious behavioral syndrome. In this way, the findings in research on animals can help to solve the problem mentioned. This will benefit the welfare or health of human as well the animals (Association, 2007b). Benefits vs. Cost When attempting to conduct a research study using animals, it takes many financial resources just to start as well to finish the research. Take for example in the experiment on a mouse. The mouse cost about $200 million. This is just only the animal that will be used in the experiment, the laboratory is another source of cost. When doing research in animals, the laboratory is very special in a way that the instruments that are utilized are different when compared to a normal laboratory. In a rat experiment, the materials and instruments will cost for about $4,500. 00. Though many psychologists and researchers as well as the government allots large funds for a single experiment, the knowledge that is acquired after the experiment will compensate the cost of the experiment. The knowledge that was gain will be used in many applications like in medicine so that to lessen the dependence on medical health program. Also, theses knowledge will be used to understand further human behavior so that to minimize human behavior syndrome. Ethical Issues There are sectors in a society where they protect the welfare of animals. They want to preserve the biological structure of animal. They believe that animals have also rights to live in normal life. But still there are many research studies on animals on psychology. Because of this issue, many psychologists proposed to have ethical standards when one wants to conduct an experiment on animals. These ethical standards will guide anyone who wants to conduct a research study. Violation on the standards would mean fine or punishment. Another way to protect research animals is the creation of law. The most popular law that protects animals on further abuse is the Animal Welfare Act, most recently amended in 1985. This law will protect research animals on mistreatment. In this act also, the instruments that are utilized will be check regularly and if the instruments still follow the standards set by the said law (Association, 2007b). Many safeguards exist to assure that laboratory animals receive humane and ethical treatment. Care and use of animals in research are regulated and monitored by various government agencies. Institutions in which research with animals is conducted have federally mandated review committees (Association, 2007b). One of the most popular animal researches is the Skinner’s rat. Skinner is a well known psychologist ad was faculty in Harvard University. He studied the behavior of a rate so that to understand better the human behavior (BF, 1953). He emphasized that animal research is simpler to conduct than on human because the behavior of animals are simple to understand than of the human. Another advantage of animal research on human research is that the outside factors that can affect the result of the study can be controlled. He said that is you want to examine the sight of a rat; you must first study its behavior in a dark place and compare its behavior in an illuminated place (Ulrich, 2007). The Impact At the start of animal research to further understand human behavior, it received many controversies. One is the issue the right to live in normal life. The sectors that protect the welfare of animals argue that all living organisms must be treated equally and that all have the right to live. They said that mistreating animals is not a humane way. Another impact of animal research is the high cost in conducting the said research. The conservative group argues that instead of using the large amount of money in a non sense research, why not to government programs that will lessen the problem of a given country like the investment on high technology instruments to be used like computers (Kenneth J. Shapiro, 2007). Another question of the conservative groups is; are there any other way except on the use of animals on research to understand human behavior? Today, plants are now being considered to be one of the options when conducting research study. With the use of fast and sophisticated computers, the knowledge can be gained. Conclusion Animal research on psychology had gained many negative feedbacks because of the ethical issue behind. Many conservative groups want to protect the welfare of animals by not allowing animal research to conduct. Still there are many animal researches in the world. This is because psychologist wants to gain knowledge on human behavior. Is animal research in psychology ethical and necessary? Animal research is essential because the result that will be gained after the research compensate the negative feedbacks. Though there are ethical issues surrounding animal research, psychologists are now trying to follow ethical standards when they are conduction experiment. This is to ensure the welfare and humane treatment of the animals being experimented. References: Association, A. P. (2007a). The Importance of Laboratory Animal Research in Psychology: Psychopharmacology [Electronic Version]. Retrieved October 25, 2007, Association, A. P. (2007b). Research With Animals in Psychology [Electronic Version]. Retrieved October 25, 2007, from http://www. apa. org/science/animal2.html BF, S. (1953). Beyond Freedom and Dignity: New York. Kenneth J. Shapiro, P. (2007). Animal Models of Human Psychology Critique of Science, Ethics and Policy [Electronic Version]. Retrieved October 25, 2007, from http://www. psyeta. org/animalmodels. html Miller, G. A. (1890). The Principles of Psychology: Harvard University Press. Nielsen, K. (2001). Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla (2nd edition ed. ): Oxford Univ. Press. Perle, S. (2004). Morality and Ethics: An Introduction. : Butchvarov, Panayot. Schmidt-Nielsen, K.(1997). Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment. (5th edition ed. ): Cambridge Univ. Press. Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). Structure of Research: Research Methods Knowledge Base. Ulrich, R. E. (2007). Animal Research in Psychology: An Example of Reinforced Behavior [Electronic Version]. Retrieved October 25, 2007, from http://www. curedisease. com/Perspectives/vol_3_1991/psych. html Why animal experimentation persists [Electronic. (2007). Version]. Retrieved October 25, 2007, from http://www. curedisease. com/why_animal_experimentation_persists. pdf.

Ethical dilemmas Essay

Ethical dilemmas in the society have posted a major challenge to humanity since historical times. This has been contributed by the threats and immediate uncertainty that acts and reacts to kill the will and desire to do that which is good. Ethical dilemmas comprises of direct wrong acts in the society even when the correct acts are clear. However, the good actions are mostly never committed as they require dire commitment and are often interpreted in the wrong mode by the immediate peers and/ or work mates (Cyndi, 2008). In colleges, students are faced with major challenges related to their peers and the administration too. Ethics dictate that the students should not cheat in the exam rooms. Again, students are not supposed to steal others properties or sneak out of the school compound. The ethical thing to do in such a situation is reporting the case to the administration for disciplinary actions against the culprits. However, students do not report and remain silent in majority of the cases and therefore encourage repetition of the same acts. It is usually very hard to gather evidence since cases like those of cheating cannot have exhibits. Besides, there are long procedures to follow in filing such cases and therefore it appears as a waste of time by the students. Finally, it appears as a sabotage and betrayal of one’s peers and therefore one risks being segregated. Therefore, majority of the students though willing never acts ethically as they are torn between acting correctly or maintaining the demands of the immediate associations (James & Dean, 2008). Lawyers on the other hand are trusted with ensuring that the most ethical discourses are followed in the justice system. However, rarely does it happen as they defend their clients even when they are aware that he/she is on the wrong side. As a professional lawyer, bringing charges against another lawyer is hard even after clearly knowing that he/she has been on the wrong side (Scott & Ronald, 2008). This is because it demands involvement in terms of time and vast resources to effectively defend the case. Besides, one keeps off as the peer dislike people who go against one their ideologies in the societies. Like the students case, one may be left alone and therefore unable to operate in the profession which requires strong cooperation. As indicated earlier, lawyers know how to cover what is bad with good and lots of evidence may be required to win particular cases against them. Lawyers Johnnie Cochran and F. Lee Bailey defended O J. Simpson in his murder case with little challenges from other lawyers of their firms even understanding their client had committed the crime (Cyndi, 2008). Besides, accountants have also been strongly involved in unethical deeds where they inflate or deflate the books of accounts in solidarity with their partners to ensure that they make a company or project fail in favor of another one. In such cases, though there is enough evidence to launch major complains, the rewards are generally hefty and the members commit never to reveal it and exposing the deal would lead to threats by other members. This has been highly unethical as it may lead to loss of jobs and investments for innocent people (James & Dean 2008). An honor system application and use in the society has had many advantages to the immediate users and the society at large. It is cost effective as it is run by trust and enhancing efficiency is easy as it emanates from the individuals goodwill. For instance buses and trains can operate easily without waiting for routine tickets checking. Besides, it brings the groups together and promotes the spirit of team work in an organization or institutions thereby raising the efficiency of immediate operations. However, in the society where there is great tendency to do the wrong things than the correct one major businesses are bound to fail due to solidarity of the employees and staff. As a result, it promotes laziness and bad behavior as the employees act in solidarity to cover up their colleagues on the wrong sides in the organization or institutions (Scott & Ronald, 2008). This system breeds the major dilemmas and acts to kill the good people in the society by pushing them into the major peer cocoons. Conclusion. Ethical dilemmas have posted some of the major threats in the society to humanity and the production systems. They have far reaching impacts to the society especially if they are amongst the peers in institutions and other management units. To add to that, these dilemmas operates at all levels from school to high professionals and administration management realms therefore posing major risks to the whole society. To address the situation, institutions require embarking on strong campaigns to fight the unethical behaviors in the society. Cooperation and communication based on mutual trust and low coercion in organizations and schools should be established. Besides, the leaders should act as the major role models for all the people in their organizations or institutions. Reference list. Cyndi, B. (2008). Criminal Justice Ethics: Theory and Practice. New York: Sage Publishers. James, L. & Dean, B. (2008). Decision-making Near the End-of-life: Recent Developments and Future Directions. New York: CRC Press. Scott, A. & Ronald, R. (2008). Executive Ethics: Ethical Dilemmas and Challenges for the C- Suite. New Jersey: IAP.

Rhetorical Analysis Oregon Fish And Wildlife Commission

General For this Rhetorical Analysis assignment, I have reviewed two documents, one from John Vucetich, a Professor of Wildlife at Michigan Technical University and one from Adrian Treves, an Associate Professor of Environmental Studies at The University of Wisconsin. Both documents request that the Grey Wolf remains on Oregon’s Endangered Species List as the specifications of removing the wolf from the list have not yet been met.AudienceThe primary audience of these two documents is the Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission and it is clearly stated upon both documents in a letter like format, where they state, â€Å"To the Oregon Fish and Wildlife Commission:† or â€Å"Dear Commissioners,†. The Secondary Audience would apply to any of the other†¦show more content†¦Ultimately, Adrian Treves has done a better job advocating for the grey wolf to remain on the endangered species list, through his format and use of lists and bolded literature. There do not se em to be any apparent violations within the conventions. The time line of these documents is in very close proximity as both of the memos were written during the month of October on day twenty-seven and twenty-eight, within the year of 2015. Some social and political issues that come into play during these memos is the issue that Oregon’s Commissioners is considering delisting grey wolves from the endangered species list based on propositions that I quote are â€Å"...not supported by science, the law or the public.† and â€Å"The continued insistence on delisting wolves seems motivated by politics and specious perception that it would make things easier for the agency.† (Page 4). It is apparent that the motive to remove grey wolves from the endangered species list would make it â€Å"easier† for the agencies that constantly have to monitor and deal with the problems that arise with having wolves in the state but, the current wolf population in Oregon is roughly eighty to eighty-three animals which is far below the carrying capacity of the state. ExigenceThe purpose for theShow MoreRelatedLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 PagesReasons ................................................................................................ 236 Deceiving with Loaded Language ................................................................................................... 238 Using Rhetorical Devices .................................................................................................................. 240 Review of Major Points .............................................................................................